Domestic violence: A brief critical analysis of impact and interventions

Domestic military force A brief critical analysis of meet and interventionsDOMESTIC force- kayoedA BRIEF CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF IMPACT AND INTERVENTIONSBUILT ON A DEFINITIONAL, HISTORICAL, AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONAnd yet I disquietude you, for youre fateful thenWhen your eyes roll so.Why I should fear I sack come in not,Since guiltiness I know not, but yet I feel I fear.IntroductionThe introductory quotation by Desdemona expresses her fear of Othellos rage (Shakespe atomic number 18, 1604, cited in Meyersfeld, 2003) at the alike time eloquently conveying the terror implicit in internal craze and demonstrating that nationalatedated military group is not a new pheno manpoweron. Neither is home(prenominal) wildness a r be occurrence. According to the British g all overnwork forcet, home(prenominal) strength affects millions of lives. The pursuance statistics are quoted from the official organisation website ( offensiveReduction.gov.uk, Domestic vehemence mini-site , 2005)one in four women and one in six men will be victims of municipal military group in their lifetime with women at greater riskiness of repeat victimisation and serious injury89 portion of those scathe four or more incidents are womenone incident of home(prenominal) military unit is reported to the police e actually minuteon average, both women a week are killed by a current or former phallic partner and interior(prenominal) rage accounts for 16 percent of all violent crime.This essay will demonstrate that the issue of national force play is a complex one, such(prenominal) more complex than the limit itself might convey. Indeed, interior(prenominal) help military group is complex in equipment casualty of its very definition, complex in footing of its theoretical explanations, complex in considerations of gender relevancy, complex in terms of its effects, and complex in terms of interventions to prevent and deal with its occurrence. The essay begins with a p resentation and critique of dissimilar definitions for municipalatedated force-out, an exploration of the historical evolution of municipalated power as a societal partake, and a discussion and critique of theoretical explanations for home(prenominal) abandon including consideration of the relevance of gender. This prat will be employ as a basis for exploring the impact of municipal craze upon its charter and indirect victims and the value and efficacy of the current resources, initiatives, and support ne 2rks used in combating domestic craze and assisting its victims. Finally, concluding remarks will be presented.A followup on Definitions of Domestic ViolenceFinding a usually-accepted definition for domestic wildness proved to be an elusive endeavor. This whitethorn be because in that location is no consensus definition of the term (Laurence and Spalter-Roth, 1996 Contemporary Womens Issues Database, May 1996 Contemporary Womens Issues Database, July 1996). several(prenominal)ly writer seems to define the term to fit his or her topic or agenda. For instance, Chez (1994, cited in Gibson-Ho salubrious, 1996), in focusing on female victims of domestic wildness, defines the term as the repeated subjection of a woman to forceful somatic, genial, and mental behavior to coerce her without regard to her proper(ip)s. Some definitions are basic and general a pattern of regularly occurring twist and hysteria, or the threat of violence, in an intimate (though not necessarily cohabitating) relationship (Gibson-Ho vigorous, 1996, citing Loring and Smith, 1994). Other definitions are worldwide and specific (Manor, 1996 Neufield, 1996 Asian Pages, 1998 Josiah, 1998 Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 1999 Danis, 2003 Verkaik, 2003). The more comprehensive definitions, although phrased differently, typically possess the care common elementsa pattern of opprobrious behavior (as contrasted to a exclusive event)the inglorious behavior involves influ ence, coercion, and/or powerthe abusive behavior may be physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, and/or monetary andthe victim of the abusive behavior is a cohabitating or non-cohabitating intimate partner or spouse.The British government has select one of the more expansive descriptions of domestic violence, one that includes all of the prior elements Any incident of threatening behaviour, violence or nuisance (psychological, physical, sexual, financial or emotional) betwixt adults who are or book been intimate partners or family members, regardless of gender or sexuality. Beyond the basic definition, the government furnishes and description of domestic violence as a pattern of abusive and compulsory behaviour by which the abuser attempts to gain power over the victim. The government contends that domestic violence crosses age, gender, racial, sexuality, wealth, and geographical lines. (CrimeReduction.gov.uk, Domestic violence mini-site, 2005) Interestingly, the definiti on offered by the government expands the description to include other family members in join on to intimate partners.Historical Evolution of the Recognition of Domestic Violence as a Societal ConcernThe issue of domestic violence, particularly violence against female spouses, was a topic of societal concern dating from the prime(prenominal) marriage law instituted by Romulus in 75 B.C. But the concern was not in preventing domestic violence to the contrary the concern was in support of wife beatinglegally and institutionallya author that existed through the early twentieth century. (Danis, 2003, citing Dobash and Dobash, 1979). English common law, until the late ordinal century, structured marriage to give a husband superiority over his wife in or so aspects of the relationship. This sanctioned superiority gave the husband the right to command his wifes obedience, and subject her to corporal punishment or chastisement if she defied his authority. (Tuerkheimer, 2004, citing Sie gel, 1996) The beginning of the twentieth century witnessed the dismantling of laws specifically condoning control and violence however, the laws were not replaced by codes that protected victims from abuse. Instead, marital privacy became the standard. Essentially, abuse was considered to be a family riddle, not one in which society had an interest. (Turekheimer, 2004)not until the feminist movement of the late 1960s and 1970s was ordinary interest in domestic violence piqued (Danis, 2003, citing Schechter, 1982). With little universal or tete-a-tete funding, feminist activists set up shelters for female victims of domestic violence. They also press for laws to punish offenders and promoted training of neighborly workers and other professions to recognize domestic violence and treat its victims. (Contemporary Womens Issues Database, May 1996). From these humble beginnings, over the last thirty-plus years, customary awareness has been enhanced dramatically, increasing amounts of public and private funding have been allocated for shelters, domestic violence laws have been strengthened, and genial workers and other professionals (e.g. school personnel, health care professionals, police officers) have been trained to recognize signs of, and provide treatment to those unnatural by, domestic violence.Today, in the early years of the new millennium, the expression in which society views domestic violence is continuing to evolve. Physical abuse of wives was the sign focus of intervention initiatives. Drawing on research presented earlier, sexual, emotional, psychological, and financial abuse have been added to physical abuse as types of domestic violence. And, many definitions of victims of domestic violence now include, in addition to wives, husbands and domestic partners of the same or different sex. Increasingly, too, children in the domestic formation are being include as victims of domestic violence.Theoretical Explanations for Domestic Violence and t he Relevance of grammatical genderJust as there is a lack of consensus on a oneness definition for domestic violence, there is no single recognised causative speculation for domestic violence. In the absence of a single hypothesis, at least four theories are used to explain wherefore domestic violence occurs social change over/deterrence, social development, feminist, and the ecological example. (Danis, 2003) These theories, with their relevance to domestic violence, will be presented and critiqued in this element. A discussion of the relevance of gender in domestic violence will ratiocination out the section.Under the social exchange theory, human interaction is driven by pursuing rewards and avoiding punishments and costs. (Danis, 2003, citing Blau, 1964). Gelles and Cornell (1985, 1990, cited in Danis, 2003) contend that domestic violence occurs when costs do not outweigh rewards. Costs in this context include the authorisation for defensive physical action by the vict im, potential of being arrested and imprisoned, prejudice of personal status, and dissolution of the domestic arrangement.The social learning theory suggests that deal learn to be violent by being immediately rewarded or punished after they draw out violent behavior, through what is called reinforcement, and by watching the experiences of others, called modeling (Danis, 2003, citing Bandura, 1973). According to some experts, there is a correlation between people who witness abusive behavior in their earlier lives and those who commit domestic violence later. (Danis, 2003, citing OLeary, 1987).According to feminist theory, domestic violence emanates from a patriarchal school system which assigns men the responsibility for controlling and managing female partners (Danis, 2003, citing Dobash and Dobash, 1979 Yllo, 1993). Under this theory, domestic violence is attributed to a flaw in societal structure rather than to any specific individual male pathology.Finally, the ecological f ramework theory, in contending that no single theory abide be used in explaining or predicting domestic violence, proposes risk factors for domestic violence and interventions to address it at three directsthe micro level (e.g. batterer programs), the meso level (e.g. police and the courts), and the macro level (e.g. a coordinated community approach). (Danis, 2003, citing Crowell and Burgess, 1996 ice-skating rink and King, 1998).Each of these four theories offers valuable insight into domestic violence. For instance, the social exchange theory offers a basis for law enforcement and prosecution of offenders the social learning theory helps to explain why children who witness abuse sometimes modernise up to be abusers themselves thereby providing rationale for corrective interventions to unlearn abusive behavior and the feminist theory supports interventions targeted at circumstances batterers to reform and helping to empower victims. But none of these theories seems to provide a comprehensive foundation on which a comprehensive approach for dealing with the many causal and outcome dimensions of domestic violence bay window be built. The more compound ecological framework theory, however, seems to furnish the needed basis for such(prenominal) a comprehensive approach.Now attention will turn to the topic of the relevance of gender in domestic violence. Historically, as mentioned earlier, wives were considered to be the only victims of domestic violence. Today, husbands as well as same- or different-sex non-married partners are considered to be victims as well (Cruz, 2003). Although the statistics vary significantly (Leo, 1994), some indicating that the same number of men as women are victims of domestic violence (Leo, 1994 Simerman, 2002), most experts agree than women are most often the victims and, when they are victimized, the damage is usually more serious. The extension that women are most often victims has now gained official recognition. The Briti sh government contends that, although domestic violence is not restricted to a specific gender, it consists chiefly of violence by men against women. (CrimeReduction.gov.uk, Domestic violence mini-site, 2005)The Potential have-to doe with of Domestic Violence on Females, Mothers, and ChildrenAccording to the Contemporary Womens Issues Database (January 1996), the most common victims (of domestic violence) are women and children. With the acknowledgement that domestic violence affects men as well as women, the focus of the discussion in this section will be on the potential impact of domestic violence on females, generally, and on females in their role as mothers as well as on their children.Domestic violence against women can result in serious physical injuries, psychological flummoxing, and mental strain (Wha-soon, 1994). According to Wha-soon, physical injuries include severe headaches, bruises, bone fractures, loss of eyesight, nervous paralysis, insomnia and indigestion, and psychological trauma can include anxiety, a sense of powerlessness, and a loss of self-conceit and self-confidence. Psychological effects can lead to suicide in some cases. Winkvist (2001) echoes these psychological effects and adds that beat-up women are also more apt(predicate) to experience sexual and reproductive health disorders. Effects are not restricted to those that are physical and psychological in nature, however. Women can be financially impacted as well. Brown and Kenneym (1996) contend that women, in an exertion to flee their attackers, may give up financial security and their homes in favor of safety.Mothers may experience additional negative effects from domestic violence. Starr (2001) contends that domestic violence against mothers is associated with harmful implications for mental health and parenting, as well as for the offspring. According to Starr, mothers who are in an environment of domestic violence suffer worse outcomes for themselves and for their child ren. Isaac (1997) suggests that abuse of mothers and children are linked, stating that from thirty to almost threescore percent of mothers reported for child abuse were themselves abused.Hewitt (2002) claims that ninety percent of occurrences of domestic violence are witnessed either directly or indirectly by children. Children can be affected in at least two ways by domestic violence. According to the British government, they can be traumatized by violence they witness against others in the relationship even when they are not the specific targets of the violence (CrimeReduction.gov.uk, Domestic violence mini-site, 2005). According to Hewitt (2002), children suffer low self-esteem, isolation, trauma, and homelessness that they may not manifest until later in life. They may also suffer from maladies such as worry, sadness, focus and concentration difficulties, forgetfulness, headaches and stomachaches, lying, and short(p) impulse control, according to Salisbury and Wichmann (2004). Importantly, there is also a wholesome correlation between domestic violence and child abuse, a power point which reinforces Isaacs position mentioned earlier (CrimeReduction.gov.uk, Domestic violence mini-site, 2005). Edleson (1999, cited in Spath, 2003) takes the same position in stating that numerous research studies over the last several decades have reported a connection between domestic violence and child ill-treatment within families. And, finally, as mentioned earlier, the social learning theory would suggest that children who witness violence learn that violence is an acceptable way to settle disputes. Supporting this, Wha-soon (1994) writes that the learning of violence causes a cycle of violence.An judging of the Value and Efficacy of Domestic Violence InterventionsMethods for dealing with domestic violence generally fall into three categories saloon, protection, and nicety (M2 Presswire, 1998). As the terms imply, prevention attempts to avert incidences of domestic violence through methods such as commandment and counseling protection involves attempts to prevent get along injury through methods such as removing victims from the situation and ordering offenders to stay away from their victims and justice involves requital against domestic violence offenders.The value and efficacy of prevention, protection, and justice methods used in dealing with domestic violence are difficult to measure. A resolve for this was mentioned earlier the lack of a consensus definition for domestic violence itself. (Contemporary Womens Issues Database, May 1996). Nevertheless, there has been some attempt at measuring functioning anecdotally. According to the Contemporary Womens Issues Database (April 1993) genuinely, the two most common forms of social intervention are mechanisms that help her to lead (such as emergency shelters) and having him arrested(but) incomplete of these interventions is ideal. And, police and judicial interventions do not seem to fa ir much better as illustrated by the case of Samuel Gutierrez who killed his domestic partner, Kelly Gonzalez, in Chicago, Illinois in the United States after multiple beatings, arrests, and various court interventions (Hanna, 1998).That domestic violence still exists as such a serious social problem is probably the best evidence that current methods for preventing it, protecting its victims, and exacting justice on offenders are not working especially well. Perhaps the prospective will be brighter. Newer perspectives, such as that offered by the ecological framework theory, offer some hope. It seems that taking a comprehensive, integrated approach could potentially be substantially more effective as the various public and private components work together in a cooperative, synergistic arrangement with one goalthe welfare of the potential or actual victim. oneness expert even suggests that this combined public-private approach could be enhanced further by adding a third componentth e family (nuclear family, extended family, intimate family, close relationships)to the formal, integrated support arrangement (Kelly, 2004).ConclusionPublic and private organizations overlay to increase their attention to domestic violence. In the United Kindgom, The Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004 furnishes greater authority to police and the courts in dealing with cases of domestic violence and in providing protection to victims. Aditionally, the British governments late issued national domestic violence action plan sets forth ambitious goals (CrimeReduction.gov.uk, Domestic Violence, 2005) quoted as followsreduce the prevalence of domestic violenceincrease the rate that domestic violence is reportedincrease the rate of domestic violence offences that are brought to justiceensure victims of domestic violence are adequately protected and supported nationwide andreduce the number of domestic violence related homicides.Returning to the introductory quotation, had Sha kespeares Desdemona been alive today, perhaps she would have some hope that she would not forever be in such great fear of Othellos rage. ReferencesAsian Pages (1998) What is domestic violence? November 14, 1998.Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall. Cited in Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalisation of domestic violence What social workers need to know. brotherly Work, April 1, 2003.Blau, P. M. (1964). rally and power in social life. New York backside Wiley Sons. Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalisation of domestic violence What social workers need to know. Social Work, April 1, 2003.Brown, Karen R. and Kenneym, Catherine T. (1996) Report from the front lines The impact of violence on poor women Part 1 of 5. Contemporary Womens Issues Database, January 1, 1996.Chalk, R., King, A. (1998). (Eds.). Violence in families Assessing prevention and treatment programs. Washington, DC National Research Council/National academy of Sciences. Cited in Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalization of domestic violence What social workers need to know. Social Work, April 1, 2003.Chez, N (1994) Helping the victim of domestic violence. American Nursing 199494(7)32-37. Cited in Cited in Gibson-Howell, Joan C. (1996) Domestic violence identification and referral. diary of Dental Hygiene, run into 1, 1996.Contemporary Womens Issues Database (1996) Domestic and sexual violence data sight Part 3 of 9, July 1, 1996.Contemporary Womens Issues Database (1996) Measuring the costs of domestic violence against women and the cost-effectiveness of interventions Part 1 of 6, May 1, 1996.Contemporary Womens Issues Database (1993) Men beating women end domestic violencea qualitative and quantitative study of public attitudes on violence against women Part 3 of 7, April 1, 1993.Contemporary Womens Issues Database (1996) You or someone you know may live in a home where domestic violence is a problem, January 1, 1996.CrimeReducti on.gov.uk (2005), Domestic violence http//www.crimereduction.gov.uk/domesticviolence51.htm, April 4, 2005 April 11, 2005.CrimeReduction.gov.uk (2005), Domestic violence mini-site http//www.crimereduction.gov.uk/dv01.htm, April 4, 2005 April 9, 2005.Crowell, N. A., and Burgess, A. W. (1996). (Eds.). Understanding violence against women. Washington, DC National Academy Press. Cited in Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalization of domestic violence What social workers need to know. Social Work, April 1, 2003.Cruz, J. Michael (2003) Why doesnt he just leave? Gay male domestic violence and the reasons victims stay. The daybook of Mens Studies, butt 22, 2003.Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalization of domestic violence What social workers need to know. Social Work, April 1, 2003.Dobash, R. E., and Dobash, R. (1979). Violence against wives A case against the patriarchy. New York Free Press. Cited in Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalization of domestic violence What social workers need t o know. Social Work, April 1, 2003.Edleson, J. L. (1999). The overlap between child maltreatment and woman battering. Violence Against Women, 5(2), 134-154. Cited in Spath, Robin (2003) Child protection professionals identifying domestic violence indicators implications for social work education. Journal of Social Work Education, family line 22, 2003.Gelles, R. J., Cornell, C. P. (1985). Intimate violence in families. Newbury Park, CA Sage Publications. Cited in Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalization of domestic violence What social workers need to know. Social Work, April 1, 2003.Gelles, R. J., Cornell, C. P. (1990). Intimate violence in families (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA Sage Publications. Cited in Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalization of domestic violence What social workers need to know. Social Work, April 1, 2003.Gibson-Howell, Joan C. (1996) Domestic violence identification and referral. Journal of Dental Hygiene, March 1, 1996.Hanna, Cheryl (1998) The paradox of hope the crime and punishment of domestic violence. William and Mary fairness Review, May 1, 1998.Hewitt, Kim (2002), Silent victims of violence in home. The word Letter (Belfast, Northern Ireland), September 14, 2002.Isaac, Nancy E. (1997) Response to battered mothers in the pediatric emergency department a call for an interdisciplinary approach to family violence. Pediatrics, February 1, 1997.Josiah, ivy (1998) Education through radio. Contemporary Womens Issues Database, January 2, 1998.Kelly, Kristin A. (2004) Working together to stop domestic violence state-community partnerships and the changing meaning of public and private. Journal of Sociology Social Welfare, March 1, 2004.Laurence, Louise and Spalter-Roth, Roberta (1996) Research-in-brief Measuring the costs of domestic violence against women Part 1 of 2 Contemporary Womens Issues Database, January 1, 1996.Leo, John (1994) Is it a war against women? U.S. News World Report, July 11, 1994.Loring, M. T. and Smith, R. W. (1994) Health care barriers and interventions for battered women. Public Health Reports 1994109(3)322-329. Cited in Gibson-Howell, Joan C. (1996) Domestic violence identification and referral. Journal of Dental Hygiene, March 1, 1996.M2 Presswire (1998) Home Office Prevention, protection and justice A comprehensive approach to tackle domestic violence, June 16, 1998.Manor, John H. (1996) Helping abusers out of the domestic violence equation. Michigan Chronicle, January 30, 1996.Meyersfeld, Bonita C. (2003) Reconceptualizing domestic violence in planetary law. Albany integrity Review, December 22, 2003.Neufield, Brenda (1996) SAFE questions overcoming barriers to the detection of domestic violence. American Family Physician, June 1, 1996.OLeary, K. D. (1987). Physical aggression between spouses A social learning theory perspective. In V. B. Van Hasselt, R. L. Morrison, A. S. Bellack, M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of family violence (pp. 31-55). New York Plenum Press. Cited in Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalization of domestic violence What social workers need to know. Social Work, April 1, 2003.Salisbury, Sarah and Wichmann, Lee Anne (2004), Seen or unseen, domestic violence traumatizes children. The Register-Guard, August 29, 2004.Schechter, S. (1982) Women and male violence The visions and struggles of the battered womens movement. capital of Massachusetts South End Press. Cited in Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalization of domestic violence What social workers need to know. Social Work, April 1, 2003.Seattle Post-Intelligencer (1999) Domestic violence Give us statistics we can work with. July 16, 1999.Shakespeare, William (1604), Othello act 5. sc. 2. Edited by Sanders, Norman. Cambridge University Press, 1984. Cited in Meyersfeld, Bonita C. (2003) Reconceptualizing domestic violence in international law. Albany Law Review, December 22, 2003.Siegel, Reva B. (1996), The rule of neck Wife beating as prerogative and privacy, 105 YALE L.J. 2117. Tuerkheim er, Deborah (2004), Recognizing and remedying the harm of battering A call to criminalize domestic violence. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, June 22, 2004.Simerman, John (2002) Men, too, fall victim to abuse in big numbers. knight Ridder/Tribune News Service, November 25, 2002.Spath, Robin (2003) Child protection professionals identifying domestic violence indicators implications for social work education. Journal of Social Work Education, September 22, 2003.Starr, Raymond H., Jr. (2001) lineament and timing of mothers victimization effects on mother and children. Pediatrics, April 1, 2001.Tuerkheimer, Deborah (2004), Recognizing and remedying the harm of battering A call to criminalize domestic violence. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, June 22, 2004.Verkaik, Robert (2003) One man in six a victim of domestic violence. The Independent, September 24, 2003.Wha-soon, Byun (1994) A study on the prevention of and countermeasures against domestic violence Part 1 of 2. C ontemporary Womens Issues Database, January 1, 1994.Winkvist, Anna (2001) Researching domestic violence against women Methodological and ethical considerations. Studies in Family Planning, March 1, 2001.Yllo, K. A. (1993). Through a feminist lens Gender, power, and violence. In R. J. Gelles D. R. Loseke (Eds.), Current controversies on family violence (pp. 47-62). Newbury Park, GA Sage Publications. Cited in Danis, Fran S. (2003) The criminalization of domestic violence What social workers need to know. Social Work, April 1, 2003.